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PASHTUNS/ PAKHTUNS/
PATHANS/ AFGHANS
By SYED ZUBIR REHMAN
PRESEDENT LSWTI
Lotus Social Welfare
Trust International
Email
lotustrust@hotail.com lotustrust@yahoo.com
Between South Asia, Central
Asia and the Iranian plateau of Sijistan lies a triangular shaped territory
studded by bare and barren mountains covering an area of approximately 250,000
sq. miles. Starting from Dir in the north, this triangle runs along the Indus,
takes a westward turn a few miles south of Dera Ismail Khan, and embracing
within its fold Loralai, Sharigh, Degari, Harnai, Quetta, Pishin, Chaman and
Qandahar extends up to Herat. From here it curves north-east and following the
foothills of Hindu Kush comes back to Dir. This region includes the major
portion of NWFP, a part of Quetta Division of Baluchistan and
three-fourths of Afghanistan. In this triangular-shaped, hilly country divided
between Afghanistan and Pakistan lives the world's largest group of tribesmen
numbering over 30 million variously called Afghans, Pathans, Pashtuns or
Pakhtuns.
Any attempt to delve deep into the history of these interesting peopIe and find
out their origin would prove baffling. But strangely indeed their history has
attracted the attention of an unusually large number of scholars. In the modern
period more and more western historians and researchers are taking keen interest
in the past of this region and its people. But the larger literature on the
subject, the greater the difference of opinion and deeper the confusion.
The difficulty arises because of the fact that the area is inhabited by a large
number of tribes each of which makes different claims about its origin. The
confusion becomes worse confounded when it is found that these claims do not
conform to historical evidence and do not agree with the conclusions arrived at
by the researchers. In view of this peculiar situation, it is proposed to give
only the consensus of opinion and to simpilify matters as far as possible. Many
Pathans may not agree with what has been stated here; but unfortunately the
nature of the subject is such that an agreement even on broad outlines seems
difficult.
Let us first discuss the origin of the names Pathan and Afghan. The term Pakhtun
or Pashtun, according to Raverty, is derived from the Persian word 'Pusht'
meaning 'back'. Since the tribes lived on the back of the mountains, Persians
called them Pashtun which is also pronounced Pakhtun. Some scholars think that
the word Pashtun or Pakhtun comes from the old Iranian words parsava parsa
meaning robust men, knights. In Indian Ianguages it was spelt as Pakhtana or
Pathan. Herodotus and several other Greek and Roman historians have mentioned a
people called 'Paktye' living on the eastern frontier of Iran. By the word
Paktye they meant the people of the frontier. (According to the Encyclopaedia of
Islam the word Pathan is from the Sanskrit word Pratisthana). Muslim historians
from Al-Biruni onward called them Afghans, never using the word Pathan which
expression was extensively employed by the Hindus. "No Afghan or speaker of
Pashtu ever referred to himself as a Pathan and the word is an Indian
usage." (The Pathans, by Sir Olaf Caroe)
"It is significant that neither Ibn Batuta nor Baber mention the word
'Pathan'. Baber gives the names of many east Afghanistan tribes, but nowhere
does he mention Pathans, Pakhtuns or Pashtuns. He calls the people Afghans and
their language, Afghani." (Afghan Immigration in the early Middle Ages, by
K.S Lal)
As for the word Afghan, it appears in the inscriptions of Shahpur I at
Naksh-e-Rustam which mentions a certain Goundifer Abgan Rismaund. According to
Sprengler, a similar name 'Apakan' occurs as the designation of the later
Sassanian Emperor Shahpur III. "The word Afghan, though of unknown origin,
first appears in history in the Hudud-al-Alam, a work by an unknown Arab
geographer who wrote in 982 A.D." (Afghanistan, by W.K Frazier Tytler). But
according to the Encyclopaedia of Islam: "the first mention of the Afghans
in written history is in the Chronicle of al-Utbi in Tarikh-e-Yamini and an
almost contemporary mention by Al-Biruni. Utbi records that Sabuktagin enrolled
Afghans in his army." Another version states that the earliest recorded use
of the name Afghan is by the Indian astronomer, Varaha-Mihira of the 6th century
A.D. in the form Avagana. (Encyclopaedia of Britannica).
"'The supposition that the Pathans are any different from the Afghans is
not borne out either by the legendary accounts associated with the origin of
this people or by historical or ethnological data." (Afghan Immigration in
the Early Middle Ages, by K.S Lal). Both Bellew and Longworth Dames consider the
two terms as appellation of a common people. There is no racial difference
between the two. The two words are synonymous referring to one and the same
people though a few writers try to make a distinction between Afghans and
Pathans which is ephemeral.
For instance, some authors maintain that only those tribes living in southern
Afghanistan, particularly between Herat and Qandhar and who speak Persian should
be called Afghans while others living in the rest of Afghanistan, NWFP and
Baluchistan speaking Pashtu language should be called Pathans. What they mean is
that those who speak Pashtu are Pathans and those of them who speak Persian are
Afghans. Sir Olaf Caroe makes a distinction between the Afghans and the Pathans
on the basis of the hillsmen and plainsmen. He thinks that those living in the
fertile plains of Qandhar, Herat, Kabul and Peshawar should be called Afghans
and those living in the hills, Pathans. Lt. Gen. George McMunn divides Afghans
into three groups: Abdalis, Ghilzais and Pathans (Afghanistan from Darius to
Amanullah, by Lt. Gen. Dir George McMunn). But, as already stated, such
distinctions are confusing and will lead nowhere. All should be called either
Afghans, Pashtuns, Pakhtuns or Pathans.
There has, however, been no dispute over the name of the language they speak. It
is called by one name only i.e., Pashtu. But its origin, again is disputed. Most
of the authors are agreed that "it is both in origin and structure an
Eastern Iranian language which has borrowed freely from the Indo-Aryan
group." (The Pathans, by Sir Olaf Caroe). But one of the greatest
authorities on the Pathans, Morgenstierne, on the other hand, feels that it is
probably a Saka dialect from the north. The general opinion, however, is that
Pashtu is a branch of the original Iranian language called Pahlawi.
CLAIMS ABOUT ORIGIN
The triangle between the Indus, Hindu Kush and the Sijistan plateau of Iran is
populated by an assorted group of tribesmen some of them living in plains and
valleys and others in mountains interspersed over the entire length and breadth
of this triangle. As already stated this is the largest conglomeration of tribal
people in the world.
We shall begin with the accounts of their origin as given by later Muslim
historians. According to Niamatulla's Makhzan-i-Afghani and Hamdulla Mustaufi's
Tarikh-i-Guzida: one of Prophet Ibrahim's descendents, Talut (or Saul) had two
sons, one of whom was named Irmiya or Jeremia. Irmiya had a son named Afghan,
who is supposed to have given the name to the Afghan people. Tareekh-e-Sher
Shahi states that Bakht Nasr who invaded Jerusalem and destroyed it, expelled
Jewish tribes, including sons of Afghan, from their homeland. During the days of
the Babylonian captivity when the Jews were scattered, one of the tribes settled
in the Hari Rud area of modern (south) Afghanistan. Pathan legend states that
they accepted Islam during the time of the Prophet when a group of their kinsmen
(Jews) living in Arabia sent word to them that the true Prophet of God as
prophesied in their scriptures had appeared in Mecca. The Afghans, the story
goes, sent a delegation to Arabia headed by one Imraul Qais who met the Prophet,
embraced Islam, came back and converted the entire tribe to the new religion.
The Prophet was so pleased with Qais that he gave him the name of Abdur Rashid,
called him Malik (king) and Pehtan (keel or rudder of a ship) for showing his
people the path of Islam.
The story proceeds: Qais Alias Abdur Rashid Alias Pehtan had three sons named
Sarban, Batan and Ghurghust. Most of the present-day Pathan tribes claim descent
from these three persons. Batan had a daughter named Bibi Matto. She fell in
love with Hussain Shah, a prince of Turkish origin, and their intimacy reached a
stage where her pregnancy could not be concealed. Marriage was the only course
open, but the offspring, a boy, was given the name of Ghilzai, meaning in the
Afghan language a son 'born of theft'. Bibi Matto's next son was Ibrahim
who, because of his intelligence and wisdom, was addressed by Qais as Loi-dey
(Lodi) i. e., Ibrahim is great. Two of Loi-dey's grandsons were Pranki and
Ismail. BahIul Lodhi, the founder of the Afghan empire of Delhi, was eight
generations from Pranki and was a member of the Sahukhel tribe of Lodhis. The
Suris and Nuhanis are descended from Ismail's two sons Sur and Nuh. Thus the
Ghilzais (Khiljis), Lodhis, Suris, Nuhanis, and their branches, the Sarwanis and
Niazis are common descendants of Bibi Matto from her Turkish husband Hussain
Shah.
The major tribes of Afghans named above, it must have been noted, should be of
Turkish origin as they are descended from the Turkish prince Hussain Shah who
married the Afghan girl Matto, daughter of Batan and grand-daughter of Qais
Abdur Rashid. Thus, according to their own accounts there would be two groups of
Afghans, one of Jewish (Semitic) origin and the other of Turkish origin.
There is a third group of Afghans called Hazaras living in the Hazarajat areas
of Afghanistan. They are said to be descended from the remnants of the Mongol
armies which had come along with Changez Khan or during later Mongol inroads.
The origin of the Hazara Afghans, as such, is Mongol.
Regarding the large number of tribes living on both sides of Pak-Afghan border
such as Shinwaris, Mohmands, Mahsuds, Khattaks, Afridis, Orakzais, Achakzais,
Bannuchis, Waziris, Bangash, Yusufzais, etc., some trace their origin to Aryans,
others to Greeks who had come with Alexander, some to the Jews and still others
to the Caucasians. "The Kalnari tribes of today: the Waziris, Bannuchis,
Khattaks, Bangash, Orakzais, Afridis and the rest are sprung from an indigenous
stock not Pushtu-speaking and became fused with or overlaid by Pushtu and
Pushtu-speaking peoples learning in the process the language of the dominant
race. The Kalnaris are not Afghans in the true line and may be much older
established." (The Pathans, by Sir Olaf Caroe)
"The original Afghans are a race of probably Jewish or Arab extraction; and
they together with a tribe of Indian origin with which they have long been
blended still distinguish themselves as the true Afghans, or since the rise of
Ahmad Shah Durrani as Durranis, and class all non-Durrani Pushto speakers as
Opra. But they have lately given their name to Afghanistan, the country formerly
known as Khorasan.
"All inhabitants of Afghanistan are now in comon parlance known as Afghans,
the races thus included being the Afghan proper, the Pathan proper, the Gilzai,
the Tajik and the Hazara, besides tribes of less importance living in the
confines of the country". (The Punjab Castes, by Denzil Ibbetson)
Of late, scholars in Afghanistan are seriously absorbed in research to prove
that Afghans are neither of Jewish, nor Turkish nor Mongol nor Greek origin but
of pure Aryan stock. They are taking pains to demonstrate original home of
Aryans was Afghanistan by pointing out the similarity in the names of several
places in their country with those mentioned in the Rig Veda.
Thus, the different tribes of Afghans/Pathans have different claims, racially as
divergent as the Semitics and the Aryans, Greeks and the Turks, Mongols and the
Caucasians. However, leaving aside the claims, there is another aspect of this
issue which has great substance, weight and research behind it. This aspect is
the conclusions arrived at recently by the Western scholars after a careful
study of the historical and cultural developments of the region and its people.
Based on the intormation obtained from latest excavations and the data collected
in a specific manner, modern scholars have expressed certain views on the origin
of the Afghans/Pathans which cannot be brushed aside lightly or treated
flippantly. They aver that the origin of the Afghan/Pathan is something
different. Let us briefly study their views.
ORIGIN AS TRACED BY MODERN SCHOLARS
They are of the view that there might have been some settlements of the Jews in
the area in 800 B.C. or so; similarly, some remnants of the Aryans might have
been left in the inaccessible mountains in days of yore; and that there did
exist some Greek and Iranian colonies here and there. But from 1st century B.C.
to 5th century A.D., during a span of 600 years, this area witnessed three
immigrations from Central Asia of such gigantic magnitude --- those of the
Sakas, Kushans, Huns and Gujjars --- that everything was swept before them,
overwhelmed by them and submerged in them. In short, hardly any previous group
whether Aryan, Jewish, Greek or Iranian could retain its identity.
Western scholars, therefore, maintain that an overwhelming majority of the
Afghan/Pathan tribes are positively descended from the Sakas, Kushans, Huns and
Gujjars. Some of the scholars point out the possibility of the word Abdali being
another form of Epthalite by which name the White Huns (the ancestors of
Rajputs) were known. Grierson finds a form of Paithan in use in the East
Gangetic Valley to denote a Muslim Rajput. Bellew, one of the greatest
authorities on Pathans, notes that several characteristics are common to both
the Rajputs and Afghans and suggests that Sarban, one of the ancestors of the
Afghans, was a corruption of the word Suryabans (solar race) from which many
Rajputs claim descent (Bellew: Races of Afghanistan). The great Muslim historian
Masudi writes that Qandahar was a separate kingdom with a non-Muslim ruler and
states that 'it is a country of Rajputs'. It would be pertinent to mention here
that at the time of Masudi most of the Afghans were concentrated in Qandahar and
adjacent areas and had not expanded to the north. Therefore, it is highly
significant that Masudi should call Qandahar a Rajput country.
Since the modern state of Afghanistan and the N.W.F.P. province of Pakistan were
the main regions through which Central Asian tribes passed and in which they
settled down, it is impossible that these areas should have remained uncolonised
and the blood of their inhabitants unsullied. Therefore, it can be safely
concluded that the present day Afghans/Pathans are mostly, notwithstanding their
claims, the descendants of Central Asian tribes of Sakas, Kushans, Huns and
Gujjars. It need hardly be pointed out that from them are also descended the
major tribes of the Kashmir, Punjab, Sind and Baluchistan.
Just as the present-day Greeks are Slavs and not of the same race as Alexander
and Aristotle, so also is the case with the present day Afghans and Pathans.
According to the Encyclopaedia of Islam, the theory of the Jewish descent of
Afghans is of later origin and may be traced back to Maghzan-e-Afghani compiled
for Khan-e-Jehan Lodhi in the reign of Mughal Emperor Jehangir and does not seem
to have been recorded before the end of the 16th century A.D. Prior to this
period no other book mentions that Afghans are descended from Jewish tribes. The
Jewish books also dont mention anywhere that Saul's son Jeremia had a son named
Afghan from whom Afghans claim descent.
Similarly, the story of Qais Abdur Rashid having gone from Afghanistan to Arabia
to meet the Prophet and after returning to his country having converted the
Afghans to Islam also does not stand the scrutiny of history. Muslim historians
Ibn Haukal, Utbi and Alberuni are unanimous in the view that uptill the time of
Mahmud Ghaznavi i.e. almost four hundred years after the death of the Prophet,
most of the Afghans were still Buddhists or Hindus/Pagans/Aminists. Mahmud
Ghaznavi 'had to fight against the infidel Afghans in the Sulaiman mountains.'
Even 200 years later in the encounter between Mohammad Ghori and Prithviraj in
1192 A.D., according to Farishta, Hindu/Pagan Afghans were fighting on the side
of the Rajput Chief. The fact that the Afghans should have joined the Rajput
confederacy of Prithviraj may also indicate some sort of kinship between them.
On this subject the views of the Russian scholar Yu V. Gankovsky are also
interesting. He says: "My opinion is that the formation of the union of
largely East-Iranian tribes which became the initial ethnic stratum of the
Pashtun ethnogenesis dates from the middle of the first millennium AD and is
connected with the dissolution of the Epthalite (White Huns) confederacy. In the
areas north of the Hindu Kush some of the tribes of this confederacy
participated in the formation of the nationalities who inhabit Middle Asia
today, and, among other tribes, in the formation of the Turkmen and Uzbek
nationalities. This is attested, among other things, in the records of genonimy
which indicate that among the Turkmen and Uzbeks (as well as among the Lokai)
there occurs the ethnonym Abdal descending from the name of an Epthalite tribal
union (Abdals, Abdel). South of the Hindu Kush, another part of the Epthalite
tribes lost their privileged status as the military stronghold of the ruling
dynasty and was ousted into the thinly peopled areas of the Sulaiman mountains,
areas where there were not enough water supplies and grazing grounds. There they
became a tribal union which formed the basis of the Pashtun ethnogenesis.
"Of the contribution of the Epthalites (White Huns) to the ethnogenesis of
the Pashtuns we find evidence in the ethnonym of the largest of the Pashtun
tribe unions, the Abdali (Durrani after 1747) associated with the ethnic name of
the Epthalites -- Abdal. The Siah-posh, the Kafirs of the Hindu Kush, called all
Pashtuns by a general name of Abdal still at sing of the 19th century.
"It is not impossible that certain Kushan-Tokharian elements also took the
formation of the Pashtun ethnic community. In this connection it is worthwhile
to note the fact cited by G. Morgenstierne: among the Ormuri the Pashtuns are
known under the ethnic names 'kas' i.e., Kushan. A number of Pakhtun tribes
belong to the Ormuri group. They are Afridis, Orakzais, Khattaks, Khugiani,
etc."
This treatise of Prof. Gankovsky forcefully puts forward the view that
Afghans-Pakhtuns are the descendants of Epthalite (White Huns) and Kushans.
TRIBES:
The famous Pukhtoon tribes, to mention a few, are Yousafzais of Bajaur and
Malakand Agencies, Afridis of Khyber Agency, Kohat and Peshawar, Mohmands of
Mohmand Agency, Orakzais of Orakzai Agency, Turis and Bangash of Kurram Agency,
Waziris of North Waziristan Agency, Mahsuds and Urmars of South Waziristan
Agency, and Bhittanis and Sheranis attached to Tank and D.I. Khan Districts. The
Khattak tribe of the well known warrior-poet Khushal Khan Khattak is also one of
the well known tribes of Peshawar and Kohat border. There are other smaller
tribe such as Shinwaris, Mullagoris, Shilmanis, Safis, Zaimukht, Muqbil, Mangal,
Zadran, Para Chamkani, Kharoti, Jadoon and Daur etc.
GHANI KHAN'S VIEW ABOUT PATHANS
Ghani Khan had written a little skittish poem about Pathans, that depicts there temprament given below:
The great potmaker of fate was sitting in heaven.
This great potter of fate was making a donkey,
when the order came to make a Khan.
So the potter cut off its tail and sculpted its ears,
on its forehead he put a spot of temper
and in the donkeys brain he put the disease
of being ahead of everyone, being a leader, and
then he put a beautiful turban on his head and
shooed him towards the world.
ORIGIN OF THE PATHANS
ETHNOLOGY:
Different hypotheses have been suggested about the origin of the Pukhtoons.
Khawaja Niamatullah describes them as descendants of Jews, connecting them with
the lost ten tribes of Israel. This theory of the Semitic origin of the
Pukhtoons has been supported by some Pukhtoon writers, including Hafiz Rahmat
Khan, Afzal Khan Khattak and Qazi Attaullah Khan. A number of orientalists like
H.W. Bellew, Sir William Jones and Major Raverty have also subscribed to this
view on the basis of Pukhtoon physiogonomy, and the striking resemblance of
facial features between Pukhtoons and Jews. They believe that the prevalence of
biblical names, certain customs and superstitions, especially smearing of the
door post and walls of the house with blood of sacrificial animals, further
substantiates this theory. But these presumptions do not hold good in view of
the fact that resemblance in features and certain characteristics do not provide
a scientific criterion for the ethnology of a race or a section of people. This
can equally be said about the Kashmiris and certain other tribes who can hardly
be distinguished from Pukhtoons in physique, colour and complexion. Similarly a
scrutiny of the social institutions of the Arabs of the Middle Ages and present
day Pukhtoons would lead one to believe that Pukhtoons are not different from
them in their social organisation.
Syed Bahadur Shah Zafar Kaka Khel in his well written book "PUKHTANA" and Sir Olaf Caroe in his book "The Pathans" place little reliance on Niamatullah's theory of the Semitic origin of the Pukhtoons and say that his account of the Pukhtoons suffers from historical inaccuracies. To disprove the assertion that the Pukhtoon tribes had embraced Islam en-bloc after the return of Qais Abdul Rashid from Medina, the accounts of Al-Beruni and Al-Utbi, the contemporary historians of Mahmud of Ghazna, establish "that four centuries later than the time of Qais the Province of Kabul had not been Islamized and this was achieved under the Ghaznavides. The Hindu Shahiya Kingdom of Jaipal extended almost to Kabul, Mahmud had to fight against infidel Afghans of the Sulaiman mountains". Even Prithvi Raj had a cavalry of Afghans in the battle of Tarian against Mohammad Ghori. Other writers, after a careful examination of the physical anthropology of the Pukhtoons say that difference in features of the various Pukhtoons point to the fact that they must have "mingled with races who passed through their territory to conquer Hindustan".
Khawaja Niamatullah's theory has further been put to a serious test by prominent linguists who maintain that Pushto bears no resemblance to Hebrew or other Aramaic languages and the Pukhtoons' language, Pashto, belongs to the family of the Eastern group of Iranian languages. Mr. Ahmad Ali Kohzad and some other Afghan historians, lending support to the Aryan origin of the Pukhtoons, say that the Pakhat of the Rig Veda are the Pukhtoons of today. It is a fact that the North West Frontier of Pakistan has, perhaps been involved with more foreign invasions in the course of history than any other country of Asia. Each horde seems to have left its mark on the Pukhtoons who absorbed the traits of invading forces, "predominantly of Turks, Iranians and Mongols".
According to Khawaja Niamatullah the Pukhtoons embraced Islam in the first quarter of the 7th century when the Holy Prophet (Peace be upon him) sent his emissaries in all directions to invite the people to the fold of Islam. One such messenger is stated to have been sent to Qais Abdur Rashid, who is claimed to be the ancestor of the Pukhtoons, through Khalid bin Walid. In response to Khalid's invitation, Qais hurried to the Holy land and as a result of the sublime teachings of the Holy Prophet (Peace be upon him) embraced Islam in Medina. After his return to Ghore, his whole tribe followed him in the Muslim faith. But due to weak evidence, missing links and wide gaps this theory has aroused suspicion in the minds of scholars.
If the origin of a race can be determined on the basis of customs and traditions then Pukhtoon would be closer to Arabs. The study of Arabian and Pukhtoon society presents a remarkable resemblance particularly in their tribal organisation and social usages. Both possess the same virtues and characteristics. To both hospitality is one of the finest virtues, retribution a sacred duty and bravery an essential pre-requisite for an honourable life. Love of independence, courage, endurance, hospitality and revenge were the supreme virtues of pre-Islamic Arabs. These very attributes also form the basis of the Pukhtoon code of honour and anyone who repudiates them is looked down by the society. A Pukhtoon is nearer to an Arab in his tribal organisation. Like an Arab tent, every Pukhtoon's house represents a family, an encampment of Arab tents forms a hay and a cluster of a few houses constitute a village in tribal areas. Members of one hay form a clan in Arabia and a Khel (which is an Arabic word meaning association or company) is the basis of the Pukhtoon's tribal organisation. A number of kindred clans grouped together make a qabila in Arabia and a tribe in the Pukhtoon borderland. Even the Pashto script resembles the Arabic script in essence. The Arabs held in great esteem four moral virtues, viz Ziyafah or hospitality hamasah or fortitude, muruah or manliness and courage and ird or honour.
The Pathans are brave, courageous, hospitable and generous and these attributes are considered as pillars of the Pukhtoon code of honour or Pukhtoonwali. The Pathans like the Arabs also believe in fire and sword for all their adversaries. This was the reason that they fought tooth and nail against the non-Muslim rulers of the sub-continent whether Sikhs or Feringi as the Britishers were called.
The position of a tribal Malik who plays an important role in tribal politics is similar to that of an Arabian Sheikh. The qualifications of a tribal Malik, such as seniority in age, qualities of head and heart and character as courage, wisdom and sagacity etc. are not different from an Arab Sheikh. Like a Sheikh, a tribal Malik follows the consensus of opinion. He is required to consult the heads of the families or village council while making any decision with regard to future relations with a village or tribe. Darun Nadwa was the centre of activity of the pre-Islamic Arabs and the Pukhtoons' Hujra is also not different from it in its functions. All matters relating to war, peace, future relations with neighbouring tribes and day to day problems used to be discussed in Darun Nadwa. Similarly, all tribal affairs connected with the tribe are discussed in the Hujra.
Hospitality is one of the sublime features of the Pukhtoons and pre-Islamic Arabs were also renowned for their hospitality and for affording asylum to strangers. They would share the last crumb of their bread with a guest and protect him from all harm so long as he was under their roof. Similarly, Pukhtoons regard hospitality as a "sacred duty and safety of the guest as inviolable". It is a serious violation of their established norms to hurt a man who enters their village as a guest. In the pre-independence days they provided asylum to all and sundry, including the proclaimed offenders wanted by the British Government in cases of a criminal nature in the settled districts. Similarly the Arabs the right of asylum considered sacred and was rigidly respected regardless of the crime of the refugee.
The spirit of revenge of the Pukhtoons is not different from that of the Arabs. Blood according to the law of the desert called for blood and no chastisement could satisfy an Arab other than wreaking vengeance on his enemy. Similarly, the hills of the Pukhtoon highlanders vibrate with echoes of retribution till the insult is avenged. As a matter of fact, the society of both the Arabs and the Pukhtoons is inspired by a strong feeling of muruwwa, virility or a quality to defend one's honour (ird). There are several anecdotes of revenge resulting in long blood feuds for generations. The Basus war between Banu Bakr and Banu Taghlib in Arabia lasted for about 40 years whereas tribal disputes between Gar and Samil factions of the Pukhtoons continued for decades. Pukhtoons like Arabs are conscious of their racial superiority. An Arab would boast of being a Quraish and a Pukhtoon would assert his superiority by saying, Am I not a Pukhtoon"?
The customs regarding giving protection to weaker neighbours is also common between Arabs and Pukhtoons. A weaker tribe in Arabia would seek the protection of a powerful tribe by means of Khuwah and a weaker Pukhtoon tribe would ensure its security by offering "Lokhay" to its strong neighbouring tribe. The custom of "Lokhay Warkawal" is still prevalent among Afridi and Orakzai tribes of Tirah. A similarity can also be found in their customs relating to birth, marriage and death etc. Certain superstitions are also common between the Arabs and the Pukhtoons. Both believe in all kinds of invisible beings, wear amulets as a safeguard against the evil eye and believe in sooth sayers and fortune tellers.
STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM
When Sindh and Multan were conquered by the Muslim army under the inspiring leadership of the young General Mohammad bin Qasim, in 711 A.D. this part of the South Asian Sub-Continent was still ruled by a Hindu Shahi dynasty. Subaktagin was the first Muslim ruler who crossed swords with Jaipal, a powerful ruler of the Hindu Shahi dynasty in 997. Later, the Muslims under the command of his illustrious son Mahmud of Ghazna invaded the sub-continent as many as seventeen times and fought fierce battles against Jaipal, his son Anandpal and other Hindu rulers and Rajas of Northern India. He was followed by Shahabud Din Mohammad Ghori, Qutb-ud-Din Aibak and other sultans and finally the great Mughals who ruled the sub-continent for centuries. Things, however, began to change after the death of Aurangzeb Alamgir, the last powerful ruler of the Mughal dynasty. The internal disputes, court intrigues and feuds of rival factions weakened the Mughal Central Government and the centrifugal tendencies of the Mughal Governors sounded the death knell of the mighty Mughal Empire.
The way was thus paved for the rise of Ranjit Singh, who eventually extended his military sway from Lahore upto the foothills of Khyber in the first quarter of the 19th century. The Sikh advance was, however, checked by the tribesmen who did not allow them to encroach upon their independence. The Pukhtoons fought several battles against them and finally measured their strength of arms with the militant Sikhs in a battle fought within the environs of Jamrud in 1837. In this pitched battle the Sikhs sustained heavy casualties. It was here that their famous General Hari Singh Nalwa, was killed.
Twelve years later the superior and disciplined forces of the British defeated the Sikhs in successive battles and annexed the whole of the territory beyond the Indus river and ruled over the North West Frontier for about a century.
The Pukhtoons resisted violently all attempts by the British to subjugate or turn them into docile and obedient members of an enslaved community. They offered stubborn resistance to the British forces and Inspite of their meager means and resources, the Pukhtoons carried on an un-ending war against them for the preservation of their liberty. The British, proud of their glory and might, sent about one hundred expeditions one after the other against the Pukhtoons to subdue them by force but they did not yield to the enemy's military might. According to Col. H.C. Wylly 62 military expeditions were despatched against the tribesmen between 1849-1908, besides every day small skirmishes. These included the famous Ambela campaign 1863, the Black Mountain expedition 1868, the Miranzai expedition 1891, the Hassanzai expedition 1894, the Dir and Chitral expedition 1895, the Tirah campaign 1897, and the Mahsud-Waziri expeditions 1897. As a result of this aggressive policy the whole frontier, from Malakand to Waziristan, flared up in revolt against the British in 1897.
The frontier rising of 1897 engaged about 98000 trained and well equipped British Indian forces in a grim struggle. According to Col. H.D. Hutchison, the approximate strength of the Tirah expeditionary force alone was "1010 British Officers, 10,882 British troops, 491 native officers, 22,123 native troops, 197 hospital Assistants, 179 clerks, 19,558 followers, 8000 horses, 18,384 mules and ponies and 1440 hospital riding ponies". But to these figures, he says, "must be added an enormous number of camels, carts, ponies etc working on the long line of communication with Kohat and gradually brought into use as needs increased and the roads were improved". The British forces suffered 1150 casualties during the Tirah expedition. Similar was the fate of other expeditions as well. The operations against Mohmand in 1915-16, and Wazirs and Mahsuds between 1917-1920 and 1936 Waziri campaign also deserves special mention. In 1917 an arduous campaign was undertaken against the Mahsuds and an aeroplane was made use of for the first time in Waziristan. In 1936 the dales and mountains of Waziristan resounded with the echoes of Jehad. The main cause of the war was the marriage of Islam Bibi (a Hindu Girl of Bannu who was named Islam Bibi after conversion to Islam) with a Muslim. She was later on returned to her parents in accordance with the decision of the British law court. The Government sent over 30,000 well equipped army to curb the activities of the tribal lashkars in Waziristan but it met with no or little success. "By December 1937", says Authur Swinson, "when the 40,000 British and Indian troops pulled back on Peshawar, the situation was no better than it had been in January, and in 1938 more fighting was to ensue." The expenditure on the Frontier war and "the burden on the Indian tax payer was enormous and between 1924 and 1939 it totalled 11,2000,000 pounds". But the long range heavy guns and air bombardment did not dishearten the tribesmen and they continued their intermittent struggle against an imperialist power till the dawn of Independence. "Throughout the hundred and odd years of the British rule over the North West Frontier, Waziristan was always one of the most heavily garrisoned areas anywhere in the world. Seething with political unrest and ceaseless guerilla warfare, this was the testing place - the crucible of valour and efficiency for generations of British soldiers, statesmen and civil servants". The British invariably deputed their ablest military and civil officers to serve in these areas which had become the best training ground for the British soldiers. In fact, the British soldiers had never before experienced such tough and arduous life as on the Frontier. This is well reflected from a stanza of Mr. Kipling's "Frontier Arithmetic"
"A scrimmage in a Border Station
A center down some dark defile,
Two thousand pounds of education
Drops to a ten rupee Jezail".
As the freedom movement gained momentum in the Sub-Continent, the tribesmen in general and the Pukhtoons of NWFP in particular rallied round the dynamic leadership of the Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah and under the green banner of the Muslim League for the establishment of an independent Muslim State. They resisted the insidious temptations of the Hindu Congress leaders. They gave vent to their feelings of indignation at the time of Pandat Jawahar Lal Nehru's visit to Khyber, Malakand and North Waziristan Agencies in autumn of 1946. They staged violent demonstrations against the visiting Congress dignitary and the then Head of the Interim Government of India and thereby proved to him their feelings of love for a Muslim state and un-shakeable confidence in the able leadership of the Quaid-e-Azam. Their efforts and sacrifices, in common with the rest of the Mussalmans in the Sub-Continent to carve out a sovereign and independent Islamic State for themselves were ultimately crowned with success. Pakistan, their life-long dream, appeared on the map of the world and as dedicated and patriotic citizens of Pakistan, the tribesmen pledged themselves to stand by the rest of their brethren in defending its integrity and the solidarity of its people.
The Pukhtoon's devotion to Pakistan - their homeland, was warmly appreciated by the Quaid-e-Azam, who as the first Governor General of Pakistan ordered a complete immediate withdrawal of all troops from tribal areas hitherto stationed by an alien Government. The so called ferocious warriors turned in no time into peaceful citizens as if by a magic wand, passionately interested in their own progress and the well being of Pakistan. The governance of the tribal belt is no longer a problem for Pakistan; on the contrary the government is actively associating tribesmen in the progress and prosperity of the country. It is one of the cherished goals of the Pakistan Government to work for the socio-economic uplift of the tribesmen who had been deliberately ignored by alien rulers. A number of public utility schemes aiming at socio-economic, educational and industrial uplift have already been completed while many more are being speedily implemented.
The tribal area which was at one time a scene of wild affrays is now completely peaceful. "At present", says Ian Stephens, "the irritant of the infidel British regime having withdrawn itself, the Frontier is remarkably peaceful. During journeys, since the withdrawal, along the Pakistan side of it, in 1948, 1951 and again this year (1961), I have been amazed by the change. Within my extensive zone of travel there were no hostilities, actual or apprehended between the Frontier Corps or the Army or tribal lashkars, as in former days. Nor did I see the least sign of Pukhtoonistan activities". A similar opinion has been expressed by Mr. H.C. Taussig in the `Eastern World'. "There is no doubt" he say "that the situation has vastly improved, at least in some areas which it was unsafe to travel by day ____ and impossible by night ____ I was able to move freely without escort, at any time".
Appreciating the pace of development in tribal areas in the wake of peaceful conditions the world famous historian, Professor Arnold J. Toynbee says "Pakistan does pursue a forward policy on the frontier and a vigorous one, but its key instruments are not weapons of war, they are dispensaries, schools, sports, and, above all, economic development. This last instrument is supremely important, because it gives the tribesmen opportunities for finding alternate means of livelihood to the raiding which has been their traditional recourse". The improvement in communications has revolutionized the means of transportation as well. THE camels and donkeys are gradually being replaced by motorized conveyances. "In this northern world round Peshawar", says Professor Toynbee, "times are changing. Not so long ago the traveller through the Khyber Pass had to pay tribute to the Afridis, or it would be the worse for him. Passing emperors have defied the Afridis and have lived or sometimes not lived to regret it. Today we can travel through the pass and back by the Afridi Bus Service and the tribute has turned into a fare. In old days a tribe used to measure its strength by the number of its rifles. Today it measures it by the number of its buses and lorries".
SOURCES OF INCOME
The Pukhtoons are chiefly employed in agriculture but their agricultural pursuits are limited owing to the lack of culturable land. The patches of cultivable land in hilly tracts and some open valleys do not produce sufficient food-grains to meet their food requirements. In addition to tilling the available land, tribesmen tend cattle, including herds of goats and sheep, camels and cows.
If, on the one hand, the tribesmen were economically dependent on the British, on the other, all kinds of trade in tribal areas had been monopolized by Hindus and Sikhs. They had opened shops in the centrally located places and big villages and every tribesman was their customer. A large number of tribesmen would go to Bombay in search of employment while others would join the Border Military Police (later called the Frontier Constabulary) and the army. Certain sections of the tribesmen would sell firewood and timber to the people of the cities, while others took up some other petty trade. But among the tribesmen, the Adam Khel Afridis of the Kohat Pass had a flare for trade. They were traders and carriers of salt at the time of the advent of the British in the frontier. They used to carry salt from the mines of Kohat District to Swat, Bajaur and other parts of the NWFP.
They also engaged themselves in a thriving and lucrative arms trade and later started manufacturing fire-arms in their factories. Other tribesmen emulated their example and set up arms factories at Illam Gudar (Khyber Agency), Nawagai (Bajaur Agency) and Kaniguram (South Waziristan Agency). The Adam Khel Afridis of the Kohat Pass showed the most extraordinary ingenuity in devising, making and installing different kinds of indigenous machines for turning out various component parts of rifles. In the beginning of the 20th century there were about half a dozen workshops in Darra but later this industry rapidly expanded to every glen and village. They were also famous gun runners and carried on arms trade with the Persian Gulf countries. In this way they supplemented the arms pile of the tribesmen and furnished them with the latest weapons at reasonable rates. At present the Adam Khel Afridis are producing such fine specimen of revolvers, pistols and rifles with their crude implements that they can hardly be distinguished from those of European-make. It can be confidently said that nowhere in the world has a similar feat been performed by un-educated men with no training or experience of mass production methods.
The arms manufacturing industry was the main source of the Afridis' income during the British rule. But conditions have changed considerably since the creation of Pakistan. The increased interest of the national Government in the welfare of the tribesmen and the growing communication and interaction between the tribesmen and the people of other parts of Pakistan, have revolutionized their socio-economic life. Soon after Independence the Pakistan Government launched a number of schemes of public utility in the tribal areas to ameliorate the lot of the people, provide them with amenities of life, increase employment opportunities and make them equal partners in progress and prosperity. The Government provided them with every incentive to take to respectable pursuits. As a result of this encouragement, the tribesmen took to commerce and soon commercial centres sprang up at Sakha Kot, Batkhela (Malakand Agency), Yekka Ghund (Mohmand Agency), Bara, Jamrud and Landi Kotal (Khyber Agency), Parachinar, Sadda (Kurram Agency), Miran Shah (North Waziristan Agency), Wana (South Waziristan Agency) and Darra Adam Khel (Frontier Region Kohat) where business transactions of hundreds and thousands of rupees are made every day.
While millions of rupees were being spent by the British on the highways to subjugate the tribesmen, nothing substantial was spent on the improvement of their social condition. But the Pakistan Government, fully aware of the problems of tribesmen, embarked upon a programme to combat illiteracy, want, misery and disease. The Quaid-d-Azam took a keen interest in the development of the tribal areas. Addressing a historic tribal gathering at Peshawar, the Founder of Pakistan declared "Pakistan wants to help you and make you as far as it lies in our power, self reliant and self sufficient and to help your educational, social and economic uplift and not to be left as you are, depending on annual doles". The Government opened the doors of employment to tribesmen in all spheres of national life. Quotas were allocated for the tribal candidates in the services, and a relaxation of three years was allowed to them in the age limit prescribed for various services. The Frontier Constabulary and Frontier Corps are now almost mainly manned by tribesmen and a respectable share of employment has also been given to them in the regular Armed Forces and other services. This liberal policy has solved their economic problems to a considerable extent. Nowadays scores of tribesmen are engaged in business, trade, commerce, Government and private services and other respectable professions and are serving the country with a spirit of devotion and dedication. In short the tribesmen from Bajaur to Waziristan, with their energy and inherent spirit of enterprise, are forging ahead in every activity of life.